When studying Stoicism and Buddhism, it is remarkable to see the overarching similarities and ways the practicing Stoics and Buddhas have lived their lives. The philosophies of Stoicism and Buddhism have a history of prominent figures who positively influenced others and helped pass along the teachings of those before them. With great leaders like the Stoic Marcus Aurelius, who gracefully ruled over the Roman Empire as one of the Five Good Emperors. (Irvine, pg. 42) Along with Bodhidharma, who was born into royalty, chose a life in Buddhism and eventually founded Zen (a branch of Mahayana Buddhism). (Stefon, 2020) These philosophers shared common goals like the Stoic ‘living in accordance with nature’ and the Buddhist ‘achieving nirvana.’ Each philosophy and their perspective practitioners shared insights into how to better our lives and how to navigate through our human emotions, thoughts, and experiences.
Though the philosophies have a lot of similarities (like shared views on vices, acceptance of nature, understanding of others, and more.), we will focus on one particular element that is a struggle of many, not just in the eras of which these philosophies were developed but also today in our everyday lives; control. The need for control is a common desire for humankind as it has led to conflict in personal lives and has negatively affected global peace. Stoics and Buddhists share similar concepts and guidance on viewing, managing control, and attaining self-control, which influences some of today’s practices in culture and religion, psychology, and martial arts. Is control really attainable?
Stoicism was founded around 300 BCE by Zeno of Citium in Athens after being stranded there by a shipwreck. Zeno had no money or belongings and turned to philosophy (which he always had a particular affinity towards) and studied Cynicism under Crates the Cynic before eventually developing Stoicism. (Pigliucci, 2017). With a primary goal of ‘living in accordance with nature,’ Stoicism is built on Logic, Physics, and Ethics while focusing on four major virtues; Wisdom, Temperance, Justice, and Courage. Through the Stoicism philosophy, one Stoic by the name of Epictetus developed what is known as the Dichotomy of Control (that eventually became a Trichotomy of Control). (Irvine, pg. 60)
The Dichotomy of Control can be helpful for those who have a hard time not being in control of everything all the time. “Some things are in our control, and others are not. Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, public office, and, in one word, whatever are not our own actions.” (Epictetus, 1) As Epictetus states, there are two polarities for the dichotomy, but we will focus more on the Trichotomy of Control, which adds a third variant to the types of controls, things you can have some control over but not complete control over. (Irvine, pg. 60)
The three control variations within the Trichotomy of Control coincide with everyday life. A variety of life events can fall into either of the three variations. For example, something we can control is what outfit we put on this morning or if we will drink coffee today. Something we have some but not complete control over is whether or not we catch the bus on our way to work or school. We can wake up early, and still, the bus might not show up on time for reasons unbeknownst to us and uncontrolled by us. Another good example of something we have some but not complete control over is training for martial arts, we can’t control the outcome of every sparring match we have, but we can control how much we train. Finally, something we have no control over can be whether or not it will rain today or if a tornado occurs.
To summarize, the Stoic Trichotomy of Control, shows the three varying degrees of control, which are:
Buddhism was founded between 500 and 400 BCE by Siddhartha Gautama in India. Siddhartha Gautama was born as a Prince (similar to the previously mentioned Bodhidharma) and was given a life of luxury within the palace. Before his birth, it was prophesied that he would either become a great king or a great spiritual leader, and since his father wanted him to become a great king, he was sheltered from truths (sickness, grief, old age, death) of the world outside the palace gates. Siddhartha then left the palace and witnessed the suffering of those in the city surrounding his luxurious lifestyle. Once seeing the state of things outside the world, which he only knew of, he decided to leave his lifestyle behind to study under holy men, where he attempted extreme methods of meditation practice.
Eventually, he understood that life is suffering, and “reached the highest state of enlightenment, Nirvana, and became the Buddha or awakened one.” (The School of Life, 2014) Among reincarnation, Buddhism shares three basic teachings: the Three Universal Truths, Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path, along with 227 Precepts for practicing disciples to follow. (Bhumika Chotaliya, 2020) Our focus will be on the Four Noble Truths, which revolve around suffering.
The Four Noble Truths are a doctrine set to help Buddhists understand their existence and how best to combat suffering (with the view that life is suffering). The truths are; (1) Dukkha – the truth of suffering, (2) Samudaya – the truth of arising, (3) Nirodha – the truth of cessation, and (4) Magga – the truth of the Path. The goal for a Buddhist is to combine the wisdom of the truths plus the virtues of Buddhism to reach Nirvana. “The relationship between them might be expressed in philosophical language by saying that virtue and wisdom are both ‘necessary’ conditions for Nirvana but neither is ‘sufficient’: only when the two are present together are the necessary and sufficient conditions for Nirvana found.” (Keown, pg. 45)
The first truth, Dukkha (the truth of suffering), shares that suffering exists within our lives and is present in all lives. It is life itself, including sickness, pain, failure, and the absence of pleasure. “The Truth of Suffering states that suffering (dukkha , Sanskrit: duhkha) is an intrinsic ˙part of life, and it diagnoses the human condition as fundamentally one of ‘dis-ease.'” (Keown, pg. 46)
The second truth, Samudaya (the truth of arising), shares the causes of suffering. The causes of suffering arise from the craving or seeking of pleasure(s) in the form(s) of “(1) thirst for sensual pleasure, (2) thirst for existence, and (3) thirst for nonexistence” (Keown, pg. 49); essentially being attached to an outcome. A metaphor Buddhists use is “craving fuels suffering in the way that wood fuels a fire,” and they (Buddhists) say, “Fire is an appropriate metaphor for desire since it consumes what it feeds on without being satisfied. It spreads rapidly, becomes attached to new objects, and burns with the pain of unassuaged longing.” (Keown, pg. 49)
The third truth, Nirodha (the truth of cessation), provides a sense of promise or hope by knowing that the suffering can come to an end. The end of suffering is only possible by liberating ourselves from our desires. Developing a non-attachment for desire helps end suffering. “This Truth announces that when craving is removed suffering ceases and Nirvana is attained.” (Keown, pg. 52)
The fourth truth, Magga (the truth of the path), outlines a path that must be followed in order to achieve Nirvana. The path is called The Eightfold Path and is also known as the ‘middle way,’ inspired by Buddha Siddhartha Gautama’s experiences of the extreme lifestyles he lived. The Eightfold Path consists of eight factors in three categories; morality, meditation, and wisdom. These are parameters that measure human goodness and outline the factors of how a Buddha should live. They are (1) Right Understanding, (2) Right Resolve, (3) Right Speech, (4) Right Action, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness, and (8) Right Meditation. (Keown, pg. 55)
To Summarize, the Buddhist Four Noble Truths, is a doctrine that shows the four truths of suffering:
ensures that suffering exists within our lives and is present in life, death, sickness, grief, pain, failure, etc., and is the overall absence of pleasure.
shows the causes of suffering, which focuses on seeking pleasure in the forms of (1) desire for sensual pleasure, (2) desire for existence, and (3) desire for nonexistence, essentially being attached to an outcome.
assures that there is an end to suffering. It comes from withdrawing and renouncing the desires, which ends the suffering, essentially practicing non-attachment and achieving Nirvana.
ensures that to end suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path must be followed; (1) Right View, (2) Right Resolve, (3) Right Speech, (4) Right Action, (5) Right Livelihood, (6) Right Effort, (7) Right Mindfulness, (8) Right Meditation.
Comparing the Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths, some elements overlap but not verbatim. The things we have no control over correlate to Dukkha (the truth of suffering). For example, based on what we know of the Dukkha, we have no control over which causes the suffering. Epictetus compares our lives to that of a drama or a play, “Remember that you are an actor in a drama, of such a kind as the author pleases to make it.” (Epictetus, 17) Such a comparison reminds us that, like a character in a show having no control over what is happening around (or to) them, we too have no control over that of which happens around (or to) us. A universal narrative is being played out (so to speak) that we just so happen to be a part of. The Buddhists have a saying, “Life is uncertain – Death is certain,” and they understand the natural phenomenon that everyone eventually dies. “Yet, instinctively, all of us fear death because we do not know how to think of its inevitability. We like to cling to our life and body and so develop too much craving and attachment.” (Dhammananda, 1995). Though everyone holds an attachment to life and their desires, it is through this attachment that causes suffering, like the actor(ess) in Epictetus’s drama being unhappy for events pre-written into the narrative.
(Dhammananda, 1995).
Both (Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths) understand that there are things that are inevitable and things that are simply out of our control. While the Trichotomy of Control states it as an overall concept, the Four Noble Truths highlight the pain points from trying to control or (being attached to the outcome) suffering. For Epictetus’ example and like the character the actor(ess) is portraying in the play, one might not be able to control the outcome, but one can control their reaction, which leads us to the next comparison.
The Samudaya (the truth of arising) shares that our desires for sensual pleasures, existence, and non-existence, are what drive us to our suffering. The stoics share something similar, “some things are in our control and others are not. Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions.” (Epictetus, 1) The two highlight and take note that it is our desires for and pursuits of pleasure that we have some but not complete control over. For example, someone struggling with control with such a dire need to have it will hold an attachment to the end goal of whatever they are trying to achieve or control the outcome of. Thinking again of the actor(ess) in Epictetus’ drama, if they know they have no control over certain outcomes, then they will be able to maintain a level of tranquility. Stoics and Buddhists remind us that we do not have control over everything. Instead, we can control what is within ourselves. Epictetus’ examples use our opinions and pursuits, and within the Samudaya, our desires are listed as examples as well, leading us to the next comparison.
Both (Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths) understand that there are things that are inevitable and things that are simply out of our control. While the Trichotomy of Control states it as an overall concept, the Four Noble Truths highlight the pain points from trying to control or (being attached to the outcome) suffering. For Epictetus’ example and like the character the actor(ess) is portraying in the play, one might not be able to control the outcome, but one can control their reaction, which leads us to the next comparison.
The things you have control over correlate to Nirodha (the truth of arising) and Magga (the truth of the Path). Things we have control over, like what we wear today or if we have another cup of coffee, it is reliant on our mindset to determine such things. We are actively choosing something over which we have full control over; the examples mentioned are physical actions (like our outfits of choice or consumed cups of coffee), but the Stoics and Buddhists extend the ‘you have control’ principle to the mindsets. Nirodha and Magga, together, remind us that there is an end to the suffering and that there’s a path, or it is our choices that we make with our mindsets that fall under our scope of things we can control.
A popular Buddhist saying that reminds us that pain is inevitable, but suffering doesn’t have to be – shares a story of a person being shot by two arrows. The first arrow hits and it is painful, so when the second arrow hits there is no need to acknowledge the pain and suffer a second time. “According to the Buddha’s core teaching on the “two arrows of pain” in the Sallatha Sutta, pain experience is generally the resultant of both bodily and mental factors.” (Nicolardi, Simione, Scaringi, Malinowski, Yordanova, Kolev, & Raffone, 2022). The Buddhists knew that reacting twice to the same pain (the double arrows) won’t solve anything other than continue to provide suffering.
Similarly, Epictetus shared that even when we are physically ill or handicapped, it is only a hindrance to the body and does not hinder our ability to choose not to see it as an ailment nor to let it consume us. “Say this to yourself with regard to everything that happens, then you will see such obstacles as hindrances to something else, but not to yourself.” (Epictetus, 9) Again, a state of mind used to overcome some sort of physical suffering.
Moreover, the two also have similarities when it comes to conflicts with others and the emotional states of mind that can come with such experiences. “If a person gave your body to any stranger he met on his way, you would certainly be angry. And do you feel no shame in handing over your own mind to be confused and mystified by anyone who happens to verbally attack you?” (Epictetus. 28) Epictetus equates giving someone mental energy after an altercation to giving away your body to a stranger. Such an analogy puts in perspective just how much of yourself you give away or suffer at the hands of (or for) others. A Buddhist perspective would be to face such confrontations with patience and simply not accept the abuse from the abuser. (Words of Wisdom, 2020) The mere disregard shows us that suffering by the words of the abuser is comparable to choosing to suffer over things we have no control over. By choosing to stay non-attached to the words swung like a sword, one keeps their tranquility (something strived for by Stoics and Buddhists alike).
(Epictetus. 28)
The meaning of whatever you’re being called only holds value if you accept and respect it. In Meditations, Marcus shares, “Remember, however, that thou art formed by nature to bear everything, with respect to which it depends on thy own opinion to make it endurable and tolerable, by thinking that it is either thy interest or thy duty to do this.” (Aurelius, book 10) Marcus reminds us that we are formed, and we live by nature to handle everything (I can only assume) the universe throws at us and that it is up to us to choose how to proceed with it. If it is not in our best interest or if it is not in our “duty,” then why accept it? The Stoics and Buddhists understood such concepts.
To summarize the main correlations between the Stoic principles and the Buddhist doctrine:
For the Trichotomy of Control, there have been arguments around what constitutes an action versus what is an outcome. Dr. Chuck Chakrapani shares that “when an outcome is not under our control, actions leading up to the outcome may be under our control to varying degrees.” (Chakrapani, 2019) An example using the catching the bus example from earlier, from something we have some but not complete control over, Dr. Chakrapani would argue that we could get hit by the bus or have a heart attack on the way to catch the bus. While these are possibilities that Dr. Chakrapani brings light to other variables that may be unaffected by our actions, they are already incorporated with the second stated principle within the trichotomy of control.
One can get into scrupulous detail regarding the varying degrees of action we can take in any given situation and compare that to the varying degrees of possible outcomes. However, let us focus on ‘action’; the Stoics believed this was in our control. Like Epictetus said, “Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions.” (Epictetus, 1)
As for the Four Noble Truths, some can agree that life is suffering but argue that there is no escape from suffering. These individuals might suffer from mental health struggles and be stuck in depressive states. “Depression is a state of behavioral shutdown. It generally emerges when an individual’s patterns of investment fail to meet their needs for psychological nourishment.” (Henriques, 2017) In other words, individuals can experience depressive states when they fail to control the expectations they set for that which they are trying to control the outcome of. The Four Noble Truths addresses such an argument with the second Noble Truth, Samudaya. “This Truth announces that when craving is removed suffering ceases and Nirvana is attained.” (Keown, pg. 52)
(Keown, pg. 52)
This brings us to our next point, if we can control our thoughts, desires, and actions, then we have some control over some aspects of our lives. We can control our thoughts, desires, and actions through these philosophical practices. Therefore, We do have some control over some aspects of our lives.
Presented as a modus ponens,
Stoicism and Buddhism share influences on modern cultures, like practices of religion. Stoicism, though developed in Athens, spread to Rome, and its popularity was replaced by Neoplatonism. Today there are fellowships and online communities for practicing Stoics (Stoic Communities), and we also see traces of Stoicism around us displaying Christianity. In 1933, Theologian Reinhold Niebuhr combined the stoic approach of control with religious faith to develop the ‘serenity prayer’ popularly used in AA meetings to help people overcome their struggles. (Irvine, pg. 16).
As Buddhism spread and developed throughout India, central and east Asia, the beliefs expanded and incorporated cultural and religious elements like “local gods and spirits, into its own cosmology” (Keown. 74). Due to these incorporations, we have branches of Buddhism; Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and local indigenous religions. Today Buddhism is practiced throughout central Asia in Tibet, China, Japan, and Korea and is the official religion of Thailand.
Revisiting the previously mentioned ‘Serenity Prayer,’ it is as follows, “God grant me serenity to accept the things I cannot change, Courage to change the things I can, And wisdom to know the difference.” (Robertson, 2022) The fascinating thing about the serenity prayer is that it not only directly correlates to Epictetus Di/Trichotomy of control, but it also relates to Buddah’s Four Noble Truths, showing that the principles shared through these teachings are still being used and continue to positively affect many.
Stoicism and Buddhism also share influences on modern practices of psychology. One of the largest traces of Stoicism can be found in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Originally developed with the purpose of helping those who struggle with depression and other mental health ailments that cause ‘dis-ease’ in the mind and body, Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis were heavily influenced by Stoic practices. (Brian Johnson, 2017). Today CBT is a widespread practice and allows Stoicism (through CBT) to continue to help those who are actively working on themselves through treatment. Similarly, some of the Stoic elements that influenced CBT practices can also be found in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path (mentioned as Magga: the fourth noble truth).
Another element of modern psychology influenced by Buddhism (and similar to Stoicism) designed in efforts to help individuals who struggle with depression and other mental health ailments that again cause ‘dis-ease’; Meditation. “Modern psychological research validates the solutions proposed by Buddhist teachings. Meditation, for example, has been shown helpful for reducing stress and anxiety, improving attention span, improving sleep, helping with chronic pain, and benefitting emotional health overall.” (Fiorillo Scotti Ph.D., 2020)
Buddhists gained wisdom through their meditation practices, “‘Wisdom’ in Buddhism means a profound philosophical understanding of the human condition. It requires insight into the nature of reality of the kind which comes through long reflection and deep thought.” (Keown, pg 45) Stoics also meditated for insight, “It (stoicism) does require us periodically to reflect on our life, but these periods of reflection can generally be squeezed into odd moments of the day, such as when we are stuck in traffic or – this was Seneca’s recommendation – when we are lying in bed waiting for sleep to come.” (Irvine, pg. 15) Modern psychology combines such meditation practices and develops new ones centered around helping individuals control their own emotional states with concepts focused on self-discipline, not being overly critical, not putting too much importance on other people’s opinions of you, and more. (Dr. Levry, 2018)
Similarly to the previously mentioned influences of culture and psychology, Stoicism and Buddhism also share influences over martial arts. As a martial artist, it is imperative to keep calm under pressure and have the mental strength to undergo conditioning. “Being successful is 95% mental and 5% physical. You have the conditioning, technique, and fighting strategy; now you have to make sure that you stay calm under pressure and keep yourself focused on the right things.” (Goldberg, 2020) To help train (control) the mind, many martial artists turn to philosophy. Though branches of Buddhism are popular, Stoicism has overlaps as well.
For example, similar to the practices of meditation, Buddhism helps martial artists remain present and calm (in other words, in control of themselves) during the chaos that comes from high-stress environments like sparring tournaments. “In combat, clinging to the past, even a mere second ago, can result in mental and emotional changes that drastically impact our physical ability. Residing in the present is not only a good idea for us but also a potentially lifesaving one.” (Ripski, 2020) Martial artists are required to ‘think fast’ in any situation, and having self-control allows them to make rational decisions, especially when their life can depend on it. Similarly, such a concept overlaps with Stoicism and how it’s practiced within martial arts. “With Stoicism, you learn that reactions based on emotions can only end badly. As stated before, events that occur around us are out of our control. Stoicism helps positively direct what you feel, negative or good so that you can find a way to improve yourself or the situation at hand.” (Maine, 2017)
The common denominator of all shared influences are centered around the control of our mental states. Therefore, the Stoics and Buddhists would not influence modern methods of gaining self-control while undergoing self-development and self-growth if it did not work. This proves that the historical philosophers were correct in their understanding of human desire and self-control when developing the Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths.
This brings us to our final point; if the historical philosophers were correct when developing the Di/Trichotomy of Control and The Four Noble Truths, then we have proven methods to develop self-control that work and are present in modern society. We know the historical philosophers were correct because of their success rate and continued shared influence on modern cultures, psychology, and martial arts. If we have proven methods to develop self-control that work and are present in modern-day society, then we can control certain aspects of our lives by controlling all of our internal and external actions. Referring to Epictetus’ and Keown’s thoughts on our thoughts, actions, and desires reminds us that such things can be taught to be in our control. Therefore, if the historical philosophers were correct when developing the Di/Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths, then we can control certain aspects of our lives by controlling all of our internal and external actions. The thoughts, actions, and desires that we can control can positively or negatively alter the outcomes around us.
Presented as a hypothetical syllogism:
The Trichotomy of Control and the Four Noble Truths are timeless concepts that have survived thousands of years, the rise and fall of empires, global conflicts, and cultural and social evolution, with the common denominator being: control. Although the human desire for complete control still exists in our overall society, having these traces of philosophy existing in our modern practices of culture and religion, psychology, and martial arts help generations later and generations yet to come.
Written by: Stephanie Alvarado
Philosophy Major
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